PLURAL DEL SUSTANTIVO

Los sustantivos forman el plural añadiendo la terminación "-s":

cat / cats

head / heads

Cuando el sustantivo presenta una de las siguientes terminaciones forma el plural añadiendo "-es":

- s (focus / focuses)

- ss (miss / misses)

- sh (fish / fishes)

- ch (stitch / stitches)

- x (fox / foxes)

Si el sustantivo finaliza en "-y":

Tras consonante: presenta en plural la terminación "-ies"

Battery / batteries

Tras vocal: forma el plural añadiendo "-s"

Bay / bays

Si el sustantivo termina en vocal "-o" forma el plural añadiendo "-es":

Tomato / tomatoes

LIKE / AS

Cuando se utilizan como preposiciones van seguidas de un sustantivo o de un pronombre.

"Like" se traduce por "como / igual que / similar a / parecido a" con el sentido de similitud. Se trata de una comparación:

He behaved like a kid (no es que fuera un niño, pero lo parecía)

Your car is fast like a rocket

He looks like his father

"As" se traduce también por "como" con el sentido de "en calidad de". Se trata de una identidad.

Use this rope as a belt (la cuerda no se parece a un cinturón, pero se utiliza haciendo la función de cinturón)

The army used this building as its headquarters

En el siguiente ejemplo se puede ver la diferencia entre "like" y "as":

My house is always full of people, it is like a hotel (es parecido a un hotel)

The building where I live was used before as a hotel (funcionó en calidad de hotel)

También se utiliza la preposición "as" con profesiones:

My brother works as a lawyer

"As" se puede utilizar también como conjunción en cuyo caso va seguido por una oración (sujeto + verbo). Se traduce por "como".

The terrorist acted as we expected

Do your homework as your teacher has told you

INDICANDO DIRECCIONES

Find (see) the pharmacy in front of you (on your right / on your left, ...): Encuentra (ve) la farmacia delante suya (a su derecha, a su izquierda, ...)

Go along (the street, the avenue, ...): Continúa a lo largo (de la calle, avenida, ...)

Go back (till the hotel, …): Vuelve hacia atrás (hasta el hotel, …)

Go down: Sigue cuesta abajo

Go on: Continúa

Go past (the Post Office, ...): Sigue hasta pasar Correo

Go straight on: Continúa recto

Go to the end (of the street, of the road, …): Continúa hasta el final (de la calle, de la carretera, ...)

Go up: Sigue cuesta arriba

Halfway down the street (up the street): A mitad de camino calle abajo (calle arriba, ...)

Take the first (the second, ...) turning on your left (on your right, ...): Coge la primera calle a mano izquierda

That place is round the corner: Ese lugar está cerca de la esquina (a la vuelta de las esquina)

That place is at the corner: Ese lugar está en la esquina

Till the corner (the turning, ...): Hasta la esquina (la bocacalle, …)

Till you see the restaurant on your right (on your left, in front of you, opposite you, ...): Hasta que veas el restaurante a tu derecha

Till you come to the restaurant: Hasta que llegues al restaurante

Turn left (right) into the street (the avenue, ...): Gira a la izquierda y entra en la calle

ADJETIVOS SEGUIDOS DE PREPOSICIONES

According + to

Accustomed + to

Afraid, frightened, terrified, scared, proud, ashamed, jealous, envious, suspicious + of (someone / something)

Angry, annoyed, furious + about (something) / with (someone for doing something)

Anxious + about

Aware, conscious + of (something)

Capable, incapable + of (something)

Crowded + with (people)

Delighted, pleased, satisfied, disappointed, bored, fed up + with (something)

Different + from (someone / something)

Excited, worried, upset + about (something)

Famous + for (something)

Fit + for

Fond + of (someone / something)

Full + of (something)

Good, bad, excellent+ at (doing something) / for (someone / something)

Impressed + by (someone / something)

Interested + in (something)

Keen + on (something)

Married, engaged + to (someone)

Nervous + of

Nice, kind, good, generous, mean, stupid, silly, intelligent, clever, polite, rude, unreasonable + of (someone)

Prepared + for

Ready + for

Responsible + for (something)

Short + of (something)

Similar + to (something)

Sorry + about (something) / for (doing something)

Successful + in

Surprised, shocked, amazed, astonished + by (something)

Tired + of (something)

Used + to

VERBOS + PREPOSICIONES

To accuse (someone) of (something)

To apologise to (someone) for (something)

To apply for (a job)

To ask (someone) about (someone / something)

To ask (someone) for (something) (pedir algo)

To believe in (something)

To belong to (someone)

To blame (someone / something) for (something)

To borrow (something) from (someone)

To compare (something) with (something)

To complain to (someone) about (someone / something)

To concentrate on (something)

To congratulate (someone) on (something)

To crash into (something) (estrellarse)

To depend on (someone / something)

To die of (an illness)

To divide (something) into (parts)

To dream about (someone / something)

To explain (a problem) to (someone)

To forgive (someone) for (something)

To happen to (someone / something)

To hear about (something)

To insist on

To invite (someone) to (a party)

To laugh at

To listen to (someone / something)

To look after (someone / something)

To look at (someone / something)

To look for (someone / something) (to try to find)

To look forward to

To object to (someone / something)

To pay (someone) for (something)

To persist in

To prefer (someone / something) to (someone / something)

To prepare for

To protect (someone / something) from (someone / something)

To provide (someone) with (something)

To punish (someone) for (something)

To remind (someone) of (someone / something) (me hace redordar)

To remind (someone) about (something) (recordarle a alguien algo)

To run into (something) (estrellarse) / (someone) (atropellar)

To spend (money) on (something)

To shout at (someone) (angrily) / to (someone) (para que se entere)

To smile at

To speak to (someone) about (someone / something)

To succeed in

To suffer from (an illness)

To take care of (someone / something)

To talk to (someone) about (someone / something)

To thank (someone) for (something)

To think about (someone / something) (reflexionar sobre algo, recordar)

To think of (pensar en algo, imaginar, recordar)

To throw (something) at (someone / something) (para golpearle)

To throw (something) to (someone / something) (para que lo coja)

To translate (a book) from (one language) into (another language)

To wait for (someone / something)

To warn(someone) about (someone / something)

To write to (someone)

PREPOSICIONES DE MOVIMIENTO

Across: de un lado a otro

James swims across the river

Along: a lo largo de

Every morning Michael runs along the beach

Down: Abajo

Paul went down the hill

Over: sobre, por encima de

The horse jumps over the fence

Round: alrededor de

The dog runs round the house chasing the cat

Through: a través de

Henry hit the ball and it went into the classroom through the window

Towards: hacia

That plane flies towards America

Up: Arriba

Thomas went up the stairs to take the English dictionary

PREPOSICIONES (MEDIOS DE TRANSPORTE)

a) Viajar en un medio de transporte

Si se hace referencia únicamente al medio de transporte utilizado y no a un vehículo concreto se utiliza la preposición "by":

To go by car

To go by train

To go by plane

To go by ship

To go by bus

To go by motorbike

To go by bicycle

También:

By road

By sea

By air

By rail

By underground

Salvo en las expresiones:

On foot

On horse

On a bicycle

Cuando se hace referencia a un vehículo concreto:

1.- Se utiliza la preposición "in" con los siguientes vehículos:

In my car

In a taxi

2.- Y la preposición "on" con los siguientes vehículos:

On the bus number 12

On the 09:00 train

On a very old ship

On my bike

b) Subir o bajar de un medio de transporte

Depende del tipo de vehículo:

1.- Con "car", "taxi" se utilizan las expresiones:

Get in (into): subir

Get out of : bajar

2.- Con "train", "bus", "horse", "bicycle", "motorbike", etc.:

Get on (onto): subir

Get off : bajar

3.- Con un barco se utiliza la expresión:

To go on board

REPORTED SPEECH

RULES & EXAMPLES

Direct speech		Reported speech
present simple I am happy I sleep		past simple He said he was happy He said he slept
present continuos I am feeling happy I am sleeping		past continuos He said he was feeling happy He said he was sleeping
present perfect I have been happy I have slept		past perfect He said he had been happy He said he had slept
present perfect continuos I have been feeling happy I have been sleeping		past perfect continuos He said he had been feeling happy He said he had been sleeping
future I will be happy I will sleep		simple conditional He said he would be happy He said he would sleep
future perfect I will have been happy I will have sleep		simple conditional perfect He said he would have been happy He said he would have slept

Verbos modales

Direct speech		Reported speech
CAN I can sleep		COULD He said he could sleep
MAY I may sleep		MIGHT He said he might sleep
WILL I will sleep		WOULD He said he would sleep
MUST I must sleep		HAD TO He said he had to sleep

Cambios que pueden sufrir algunas partículas de lugar y tiempo:

now		at that moment, then
tonight		that night
today		that day
last night		the night before
this morning		that morning
this week		that week
next week		the following week
next year		the year after
here		there

EXERCISES: REPORTED SPEECH

Reported Speech: questions

En las oraciones interrogativas usamos el mismo orden gramatical: el sujeto va después del verbo pero no es necesario usar el auxiliar "do" o "did".

Direct speech	Reported speech
"Where do Susan and Ann work? "	He asked me where Susan and Ann worked.
"¿Dónde trabajan Susan y Ann?"	Él me preguntó dónde trabajaban Mary y Tom.

ACTIVE & PASSIVE VOICE

We have listed active and passive forms in the following table.
We used the phrase I drive and have put this phrase into most common tenses.

Active (Simple Forms)
Simple Present	I drive
Simple Past	I drove
Present Perfect	I have driven
Past Perfect	I had driven
will-future	I will drive
Future Perfect	I will have driven
Conditional I	I would drive
Conditional II	I would have driven

Active (Progressive/Continuous Forms)
Simple Present	I am driving
Simple Past	I was driving
Present Perfect	I have been driving
Past Perfect	I had been driving
will-future	I will be driving
Future Perfect	I will have been driving
Conditional I	I would be driving
Conditional II	I would have been driving

Passive (Simple Forms)
Simple Present	I am driven
Simple Past	I was driven
Present Perfect	I have been driven
Past Perfect	I had been driven
will-future	I will be driven
Future Perfect	I will have been driven
Conditional I	I would be driven
Conditional II	I would have been driven

Passive (Progressive/Continuous Forms)
Present	I am being driven
Past	I was being driven
Present Perfect ¹	I have been being driven
Past Perfect ¹	I had been being driven
Future ¹	I will be being driven
Future Perfect ¹	I will have been being driven
Conditional I ¹	I would be being driven
Conditional II ¹	I would have been being driven

HOW MUCH & HOW MANY

Se utilizan para preguntar por cantidades de algo.

Si se trata de sustantivos contables, se aplica How many.
Si se trata de sustantivos incontables, se usa How much.

Estas expresiones siempre van seguidas de un sustantivo; luego, el verbo y el resto de la oración.

How many cars do you have?
¿Cuántos autos tienes?

How much money do you have?
¿Cuánto dinero tienes?

How much se utiliza también para preguntar precios.

How much is this car?
¿Cuánto cuesta este auto?

How much are the potatoes?
¿Cuánto cuestan las papas?

También se usan en forma genérica para preguntar "cuánto hay". En este caso, van seguidas del sustantivo y luego, is / are there.

How many cars are there?
¿Cuántos autos hay?

How much money is there?
¿Cuánto dinero hay?

A estas preguntas se responde usando There is / are, dependiendo de si se trata de singular o plural, como ya hemos visto en lecciones anteriores.

There are nine cars.
Hay nueve autos.

There is one dollar.
Hay un dólar.

Para hacer referencia a los sustantivos incontables, se pueden utilizar los envases o las medidas de los envases que los contienen, los cuales sí son contables...

How much milk is there?
¿Cuánta leche hay?

There are three litres.
Hay tres litros.

There are three bottles.
Hay tres botellas.

VOCABULARY: EDUCATION

General furniture and equipment

desk(s)	chair(s)	PC(s) personal computer(s)
chalkboard(s)	book(s)	shelf (shelves)
OHP(s) overhead projector(s)	projector(s) beamer(s)	TV(s) television(s)
copier(s) photocopier(s)	hole punch(es)	stapler(s)
scissors	sellotape	drawing pin(s)
	paper clip(s)

General writing equipment

pen(s)	biro(s)	paper
exercise book(s)	ruler(s)

Special art equipment

paint brush(es)	palette(s)	paint
crayon(s)	pencil(s)	pencil sharpener(s)
rubber(s) eraser(s)	glue	craft knife(knives)

Special geography equipment

globe(s)	map(s)

Special math equipment

calculator(es)	set square(s)	protractor(s)
	compass(es)

Special science equipment

bunsen burner(s)	beaker(s)	flask(s)
funnel(s)	test tube(s)

Things you learn/study at school - subjects

1 + 1 = 2	Aa Bb Cc
Maths / Numeracy	English / Literacy	History
Geography	Science	Languages
Business Studies	Music	Art
Drama	IT Information Technology	Sport